Showing posts with label Physiology. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Physiology. Show all posts

29 April 2012

Antidiuretic hormone Lecture Notes and 200 free full text articles



Antidiuretic hormone and the mineralcorticoids
ADH.ppt

Antidiuretic hormone and the mineralcorticoids
Dale Buchanan Hales, PhD
ADH.ppt

ADH: AntiDiuretic Hormone
Pat Hock RN
ADH: AntiDiuretic Hormone.ppt

Hormones of Water and Sodium Regulation
Hormones of Water and Sodium Regulation.ppt

Hormones of the Body
Dawn Tamarkin, Ph.D.
Endocrine.ppt

Diabetes Insipidus
Dr. Abdelaziz Elamin
Diabetes Insipidus.PPT

Mechanisms of hormone release
Mechanisms of hormone release.ppt

Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH Secretion
Tracy Merrill MD
ADH Secretion.ppt

Reabsorption and Secretion
Reabsorption.ppt

Endocrine System
Endocrine System.ppt

Functions of the Endocrine System
Functions of the Endocrine System.PPT

Fluid, Electrolyte and Acid-Base Balance
Fluid, Electrolyte and Acid-Base Balance.ppt

Major Functions of the Kidneys and the Urinary System
Kidneys and the Urinary System.ppt
200 free full text articles

Read more...

13 January 2010

Protein Digestion and Absorption



Protein Digestion and Absorption

* Dietary proteins, with few exceptions, are not absorbed.
* Dietary proteins, with few exceptions, are not absorbed.
* They must be digested first into amino acids or di- and tri-peptides.
* Dietary proteins, with few exceptions, are not absorbed.
* They must be digested first into amino acids or di- and tri-peptides.
* Through the action of gastric and pancreatic proteases, proteins are digested within the lumen into medium and small peptides (oligopeptides).


Digestion of protein - hydrolysis
Protein digestion begins in stomach
Pepsin - inactive precursor pepsinogen
Active @ pH 2-3, inactive pH>5
Secretion stimulated by acetylcholine or acid
Only protease which can break down collagen
Action terminated by neutralisation by bicarbonate in duodenum.
N.B. **All proteases (stomach & pancreatic) secreted as inactive precursors. Most protein digestion occurs in the duodenum/jejunum

Activation of pancreatic proteases
Trypsinogen
Trypsin
Enterokinase
Trypsinogen
Chymotrypsinogen
Proelastase
Procarboxypeptidase
Trypsin
Chymotrypsin
Elastase
Carboxypeptidase
Active proteases inactivated by trypsin
peptidases
aminopolypeptidase
transporters
amino acids
Di/tri peptides
Cytoplasmic peptidase

Pancreatic enzymes
Essential for digestion
essential for life
Proteases
Inactive form
Activated in gut
Acinar cells
Lipases Amylases
Active enzymes

Pancreatic Enzymes
* The bulk of protein digestion occurs within the intestine due to the action of pancreatic proteases.

Pancreatic Proteases
* The two primary pancreatic proteases are trypsin and chymotrypsin.
* They are synthesized and packaged within secretory vesicles as inactive proenzymes:
trypsinogen chymotrypsin
* The two primary pancreatic proteases are trypsin and chymotrypsin.
* They are synthesized and packaged within secretory vesicles as inactive proenzymes:

trypsinogen chymotrypsin
The secretory vesicles also contain a trypsin inhibitor to serve as a safeguard against trypsinogen converted to trypsin.

Other Pancreatic Proteases
* Procarboxypeptidase  carboxypeptidase
* Proelastase  elastase

Trypsin
* Trypsinogen is converted to trypsin by the enzyme enterokinase (enteropeptidase) secreted by cells lining duodenum.
* Trypsinogen is converted to trypsin by the enzyme enterokinase (enteropeptidase) secreted by cells lining duodenum.
* Trypsin then activates the conversion of other zymogens from their inactive to active forms.
* Trypsinogen is converted to trypsin by the enzyme enterokinase (enteropeptidase) secreted by cells lining duodenum.
* Trypsin then activates the conversion of other zymogens from their inactive to active forms.
* Inhibition of trypsin will slow activation of other proteases.
* Trypsin catalyzes the splitting of peptide bonds on the carboxyl side of lysine and arginine residues.
* It has a pH optimum of 7.6 to 8.0 (alkaline).
* Classified as a serine protease (serine and histidine at the active site.

Trypsin, Chymotrypsin
* Similar chemical compositions
* Chief differences are specificity of action:
trypsin – lysine, arginine
chymotrypsin – tyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, methionine,leucine
(aromatic or large hydrophobic side chains)

Lock and Key Model of Enzyme Activity
Visualization of the Lock and Key Model of Enzyme Function

Lock Key Enzyme Catalysis
* The “Active Site” contains:
* A shape that fits a specific substrate(s)
* Side chains that attract (chemically) the substrate
* Side chains that are positioned to speed the reaction

Enzyme Catalysis
* -OH of serine 195 attacks C=O of peptide bond. Histidine 57 donates a proton to the N of the peptide bond leading to cleavage and acylation of the enzyme. Asp-102 is also involved.

Carboxypeptidase COO- terminal peptide bond
* Hydrolysis occurs most readily if the COO- terminal residue has an aromatic or bulky aliphatic side chain.
* Binding of a typical substrate results in a rearrangement of the active site (induce fit). Glutamate-270, Arginine-145, Arginine-127, Tyrosine-248 are important at the active site.

Trypsin Inhibitors
* Trypsin (protease) inhibitors are found naturally in many seeds, particularly legumes such as soy, peas, other beans.
* heat labile, heat stable
* Osborne and Mendel (1917) – soybeans need to be heated to support growth in rats
* Kunitz inhibitor, Bowman-Birk inhibitor
* Both are inactivated during moist heat treatment.
* Protease inhibitors are proteins which bind to the enzyme, rendering them inactive.
* Symptoms include pancreatic hypertrophy due to stimulated secretory activity.

Absorption of peptides and amino acids
Transport at the brush border
1. Active transport by carrier.
2. Mostly dependent on Na+ gradient - co-transport similar to that for glucose
3. Some amino acids (basic, and neutral with hydrophobic side chains) are absorbed by facilitated diffusion
Protein assimilation affected by - Pancreatitis, congenital protease deficiencies, deficiencies of specific transporters

Absorption of Amino Acids
* The transporters bind amino acids only after binding sodium.
* The fully loaded transporter undergoes a conformational change that dumps Na+ and the amino acid into the cytoplasm. The transporter then reorients back to its original form.

Absorption of Amino Acids
* Absorption of amino acids is dependent on the electrochemical gradient of Na+ across the epithelium.
* The basolateral membrane of the enterocyte contains additional transporters which export amino acids from the cell into the blood (not dependent on sodium gradients).

Absorption of Peptides
* There is virtually no absorption of peptides longer than three amino acids but there is abundant absorption of di- and tri-peptides, probably by a single transport molecule.
* The vast bulk of di- and tri-peptides are digested into amino acids by cytoplasmic peptidases.

Absorption of Intact Proteins
* Absorption of intact proteins occurs rarely.
* Very few proteins can get through the gauntlet of soluble (lumen) and membrane-bound proteases intact.
* “Normal” enterocytes do not have the transporters neededt to carry proteins across the plasma membrane and they can’t permeate tight junctions.

Absorption of Intact Proteins
* Shortly after birth, neonates can absorb intact proteins.
Absorption of Intact Proteins
* Shortly after birth, neonates can absorb intact proteins.
* Most of these intact proteins are immunoglobulins which can be absorbed from the very first milk (colostrum) and this imparts early neonatal passive immunity.

Absorption of Intact Proteins
* Shortly after birth, neonates can absorb intact proteins.
* Most of these intact proteins are immunoglobulins which can be absorbed from the very first milk (colostrum) and this imparts early neonatal passive immunity.
* “Closure” is when the small intestine loses the capacity to absorb intact proteins.

Protein Requirements
* Maintenance = nutritional requirements to stay alive (does not require positive BW gain)
* Growth = positive tissue accretion
* Reproduction = tissue specific growth related to reproduction, reproductive function (milk, eggs, reproductive tissue)

How do you express a protein requirement ?
* Protein percent of the diet
* Amino acid percent of the diet
Growth Will Dictate Feed Intake
Intake Will Dictate Actual Requirement
* Protein percent of the diet
* Amino acid percent of the diet
* Amino acid percent of total protein
How do you express a protein requirement ?

* Protein percent of the diet
* Amino acid percent of the diet
* Amino acid percent of total protein
* Digestible protein percent of the diet

Digestible Protein Estimates
Digestible Amino Acid Determination
How do you express a protein requirement ?
* Protein percent of the diet
* Amino acid percent of the diet
* Amino acid percent of total protein
* Digestible protein percent of the diet
* Ideal Protein ratios (relationships among amino acids)
Economics of Protein Nutrition
Caloric cost of protein deposition
Amino Acid Balance
Dietary Protein/Amino Acid Balance
Protein Quality Evaluation
Protein Efficiency Ratio
Comparison of Protein Sources
Commercial Application of PER

Protein Digestion and Absorption.ppt

Read more...

15 July 2009

Physiology Presentations



Physiology Presentations from ksums.net

Properties of Cardiac Muscle.ppt

Endo Introduction.ppt

Renal Physiology.pdf

Male Reproductive System.pdf

Endo Thyroid gland.pdf

Female Reproductive System.pdf

Respiratory physiology.ppt

Acid Base Regulation.ppt

Acid Base Regulation Modified.ppt

Acid Base Abnormality

Parathyroid Gland%20& Calcium Homeostasis.ppt

Pregnancy and Lactation.ppt

The Endocrine Pancreas.ppt

The Adrenal gland - Aldosterone.ppt

The Adrenal Gland Glucocorticoids.ppt

The Adrenal Gland Medulla.ppt

Blood(erythropoiesis&anemias).ppt

Blood(complete).ppt

The Large Intestine.ppt

MMC and Vomiting.ppt

MN_Neuromuscular Junction.ppt

MN_Excitable Tissues.ppt

Read more...

15 June 2009

Male Sexual Anatomy & Physiology



Male Sexual Anatomy & Physiology

The Penis
* Nerves, blood vessels, fibrous tissue, and three parallel cylinders of spongy tissue.
* There is no bone and little muscular tissue (although there are muscles at the base of the penis)
* Terms:
* Penis: consists of internal root, external shaft, & glans.
* Root: the portion of the penis that extends internally into the pelvic cavity.
* Shaft: the length of the penis between the glans and the body.
* Glans: the head of the penis; has many nerve endings.
* Cavernous bodies: the structures in the shaft of the penis that engorge with blood during sexual arousal.
* Spongy body: a cylinder that forms a bulb at the base of the penis, extends up into the penile shaft, and forms the penile glans. Also engorge with blood during arousal.
* Foreskin: a covering of skin over the penile glans.

Fig 5.1a Interior structure of the penis:
External penile structures
Scrotum and testes
* Scrotum (or scrotal sac):
* Testis
o Male gonad inside scrotum that produces sperm and sex hormones
* Spermatic cord
o A cord attached to the testis inside the scrotum that contains the vas deferens, blood vessels, nerves, and muscle fibers
Structures inside the testis
Cross-section of seminiferous tubule
Interstitial cells: secrete androgens
Spermatogenic cells: produce sperm
Immature sperm
Vas deferens
Overview: male sexual anatomy
Seminal vesicles
Prostate gland
Cowper’s glands
Semen
Analagous structures in male and female sexual anatomy
Male
Glans
Foreskin
Shaft
Scrotal sac
Testes
Female
Clitoris
Clitoral hood
Labia minora
Labia majora
Ovaries
Group activity: male A & P flashcards
One side: name of term
Other side: definition, function, location
Group activity:
Male reproductive anatomy & physiology
Male sexual function: Erection
How blood inflow helps maintain erection
Ejaculation
Emission phase of ejaculation (phase 1)
Penis size
Penile Augmentation (phalloplasty)
Circumcision
Circumcision: medical perspective
Circumcision and sexual functioning
Discussion question:
Penile cancer
Testicular cancer
Prostate Health Care Issues
Prostate Cancer
Prostate Cancer: Symptoms & diagnosis

Male Sexual Anatomy & Physiology.ppt

Read more...

07 June 2009

Refresher Course on Cellular Homeostasis



Refresher Course on Cellular Homeostasis
from APS Education online
Organizers:Michael F. Romero, Ph.D. and Jeffrey C. Freedman, Ph.D.

The goal of this Refresher Course was to provide an overview of recent advances in areas of cellular homeostasis. The talks provided information that may not be readily available in a standard textbook.

In the beginning ... There was the cell (ppt file)
Michael F. Romero, Ph.D., Case Western Reserve University

Generation of the Membrane Potential (ppt file)
Steven H. Wright, Ph.D., University of Arizona College of Medicine

Ion Homeostasis, Channels, and Transporters: An Update on Cellular Mechanisms (ppt file)
George R. Dubyak, Ph.D., Case Western Reserve University

Cellular Volume Homeostasis (ppt file)
Kevin Strange, Ph.D., Vanderbilt University

Cellular pH Homeostasis (ppt file)
Walter F. Boron, M.D., Ph.D., Yale University

Read more...

Refresher Course on Respiratory Physiology



Refresher Course on Respiratory Physiology
from APS Education online

Click on the title for Audio+presentation

  • Introduction
    L. Britt Wilson, Ph.D.
    University of South Carolina School of Medicine
  • Mechanics of Breathing
    John B. West, M.D., Ph.D., D.Sc.
    University of California, San Diego School of Medicine

Read more...

Refresher Course on GI Physiology



Refresher Course on GI Physiology
from APS Education online

Click on the title for audio+presentation

Read more...

Refresher Course on Gender Differences in Physiology



Refresher Course on Gender Differences in Physiology
from APS Education online

The APS Education Committee and Teaching Section sponsor courses on physiology topics during the APS annual meeting, Experimental Biology. Courses are designed to provide both an intensive overview of content in one of the areas of physiology and opportunities to review new teaching methods and materials for physiology instruction. They are targeted especially for non-specialists who have teaching responsibilities in the refresher course's content area.

Introduction

Martha L. Blair, Ph.D.
University of Rochester

Sex Steroid Effects on Different Target Tissues: Mechanism of Action

Margaret E. Wierman, M.D.
Physiology and Biophysics
University of Colorado
Denver Health Sciences Center

Cardiovascular System: Gender Differences in Normal Function and Disease

Virginia H. Huxley, Ph.D.
Director, National Center for Gender Physiology
University of Missouri-Columbia School of Medicine

Skeletal Muscle and Bone: Effects of Sex Steroids and Aging

Marybeth Brown, Ph.D.
Physical Therapy
University of Missouri-Columbia

Common Auto-immune Signaling Defects: What Does Gender Have to Do With It?

Denise Faustman, M.D., Ph.D.
Director, Immunobiology Laboratory
Massachusetts General Hospital
Harvard Medical School

Read more...

10 May 2009

Insulin Secretion, Beta Cell Biology



Insulin Secretion, Beta Cell Biology and the Pathogenesis of Type 2 Diabetes


Kenneth S. Polonsky
Presentation by:Professor of Medicine, Cell Biology and Physiology
Director Institute of Clinical and Translational Sciences
Washington University School of Medicine

Diabetes:Basic Abnormalities
Islets of Langerhans
GLUCOSE
Pancreas
Muscle
Liver
Fat

INSULIN
* The pancreas does not produce enough insulin
* Muscle, liver and fat tissues don’t respond to insulin-insulin resistance
* Elevated Fatty Acids impair insulin secretion and action

Normal Glucose Tolerance
Genetic susceptibility
Diabetogenic Lifestyle
Normal Glucose Tolerance
Insulin Resistance
Compensatory hypersecretion of insulin
Impaired Glucose Tolerance
Insulin Resistance
β-cell compensation starts to fail
Overt Hyperglycemia
Insulin Resistance
Failed β-cell compensation

Pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction in overt type 2 diabetes
* Abnormal insulin secretion
o Absent first phase response to intravenous glucose
o Delayed and blunted response to a mixed meal
o Abnormal insulin secretory oscillations
o Increased levels of proinsulin and proinsulin breakdown intermediates
* Reduced beta cell mass

Glucose infusion rate (mg/kg/min)
Resistant

Intravenous Glucose Infusion in Insulin resistant subjects
Insulin Secretion and Glucose
Lean Control
Failure of insulin secretion to respond to glucose oscillations in IGT
Decreased Insulin Content in Type 2 Diabetes
T2DM=Type 2 diabetes.
Decrease in Beta-Cell Volume in Type 2 Diabetes
Obese
Lean
Conclusions

* Progressive abnormalities in insulin secretion are consistently present as people progress from NGT to IGT to Diabetes.
* Increases in glucose concentrations within the normal range are associated with progressive reductions in insulin secretion.
* Insulin resistance is consistently present along with defects in insulin secretion and results cannot resolve which factor is playing a primary role.

Classification Based on Genetic Mechanism and Age of Clinical Presentation
Monogenic
* Neonatal diabetes
* Diabetes in older children and young adults (MODY)
* Mitochondrial diabetes
Polygenic
* Type 2 Diabetes in adults
Genome Wide Association Studies
Recent Smaller Genome Wide Association Studies
Transcription factor in Wnt pathway
Polygenic type 2 diabetes genes
Mechanism-Beta cell
Genes that cause or are associated with diabetes
Overall summary and conclusions
* Genetic variation at multiple loci contribute to overall diabetes risk and to date account for <5% of diabetes genetic risk.
* The genes identified affect insulin secretion predominantly.
* Insulin secretion is abnormal at all stages in the evolution of type 2 diabetes and in genetically predisposed individuals with normal glucose.
* The complexity of these results have raised questions regarding the feasibility of personalized medicine and at this stage it is not clear if genetic testing will add to clinical management of the majority of diabetic patients.

Glucose Metabolism
* Glucokinase
* Hnf1α
Glucokinase
* The enzyme that phosphorylates glucose to glucose-6-phosphate allowing further metabolism in the glycolytic pathway
* Expressed in the pancreatic beta cell and liver
* Based on knowledge of physiology, mutations would be predicted to cause
o hyperglycemia associated with
o reduced glucose induced insulin secretion
o reduced liver glycogen

Relationship between Glucose and Insulin Secretion Rate
Changes in Hepatic Glycogen content after meals
Effects of mutations that activate or impair glucokinase activity
Summary
* Subjects with E23K polymorphisms in Kir6.2 who have normal blood glucose levels have reduced insulin secretion.
* At this stage insulin sensitivity is enhanced when compared to matched controls.
* This could be a compensatory response to reduced insulin secretion or an effect of the polymorphism on insulin action.
Beta cell survival and mass
Observations from islet isolation
Questions
Decrease in Beta-Cell Volume in Type 2 Diabetes1

Insulin Secretion.ppt

Read more...

08 May 2009

Human Anatomy and Physiology ppt lectures



Human Anatomy and Physiology
Presentation lectures by:R. Adam Franssen, PhD
Roane State Community College

• Muscle Tissue Lectures week 1
• Muscle Tissue Lectures weeks 2 and 3
• Blood Lectures weeks 4 and 5
• Heart Lectures weeks 5 and 6
• Blood Vessels week 7
• Lymphatic System weeks 9 and 10
• Respiratory System weeks 11 and 12
• Digestive System weeks 12 and 13
• Urinary System week 14

Read more...

02 May 2009

Physiology video presentations



Physiology video presentations
from University of Wisconsin

Date
Presentation
07/15/2008 Picture from Physiology of Alcohol video
K. Strang
03/13/2008 Picture from Altitude Adaptation and Illness video
F. Luyet
02/14/2008 Picture from Energy Metabolism in the Failing Heart: Should We Intervene? video
J. Ralphe
01/03/2008 Picture from Inducible Intrapulmonary Arteriovenous Shunts: A Paradigm Changing View of the Pulmonary Circulation video
M. Eldridge
10/04/2007 Picture from Channel Surfing in Pediatrics video
C. Stafstrom
View description
Dr. Stafstrom will speak on: 1) Structure, function and genetics of ion channels 2) Disorders of ion channel function - "channelopathies" 3) Ion channels as therapeutic targets
06/21/2007 Picture from Arterial Stiffening and Cardiovascular Disease video
N. Sweitzer
View description
Nancy Sweitzer, MD, PhD, assistant professor in the Department of Cardiovascular Medicine at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, speaks on "Arterial Stiffening and Cardiovascular Disease" at the Health Sciences Learning Center on June 21, 2007.
05/17/2007 Picture from Location, Location, Location: Why Neighborhood Matters to an Ion Channel and for Arrhythmias video
T. Kamp
View description
Timothy J. Kamp, MD, PhD, an associate professor of medicine and the associate director of the Medical Scientist Training Program at the University of Wisconsin-Madison speaks on "Location, Location, Location: Why Neighborhood Matters to an Ion Channel and for Arrhythmias" at the Health Sciences Learning Center.
04/09/2007 Picture from Everything You Ever Wanted to Know about Sexual Health video
M. Wilhite
View description

Read more...

30 April 2009

Sexual Anatomy & Physiology



Sexual Anatomy & Physiology
Presentation by: Dr. Penny Frohlich
University of Texas at Austin

Female External Genitalia

Vulva: everything that is externally visible (mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, urethral orifice, vaginal vestibule, perineal body)
mons pubis: mound of fatty tissue above the pubic bone
labia majora: large, outer fatty folds of skin tissue
labia minora: inner folds of skin and erectile tissue
clitoris: small, highly sensitive organ
glans: tip of the clitoris
prepuce (clitoral hood): loose-fitting fold of skin covering the clitoral glans
vaginal vestibule: the cleft containing the vaginal and urethral openings
Skene’s glands: group of small mucous glands that open into vaginal vestibule (near urethra)
Bartholin’s glands: two glands that open into vaginal vestibule (on either side of the vaginal opening) - thought to provide some lubrication, may emit a pheromone
hymen: thin mucous membrane partially covering the vaginal opening
perineum: tissue between the genital and anus.

Normal Variations

Female Internal Genitalia
Vagina: tubular organ connecting external genitals with uterus
Grafenberg spot (g-spot):

o mass of erectile and glandular tissue surrounding the urethra just below the bladder
o some women report that simulation to g-spot produces sexual arousal and orgasm

uterus: hollow muscular organ - purpose to nurture developing fetus

cervix: small lower portion of the uterus that projects into the vagina
cervical os: small opening in the cervix allowing passage of fluids between the uterus and vagina
myometrium: layers of smooth muscle comprising the uterus
endometrium: inner lining of the uterus that builds a rich blood supply and sloughs off the lining each month (if conception does not occur)

ovaries: female gonads - containing the immature female reproductive cells
ovum: female reproduce cell
fallopian tubes: thin flexible muscular structures connecting the ovaries with the uterus - passageway for the ovum to travel to the uterus
cilia: tiny hairlike projections that line the fallopian tubes and propel the ovum towards the uterus
fimbriae: fringelike projections that reach out to the ovary to draw a released ovum into the fallopian tube.

Sexual Response
Arteries & Veins
Female Internal Genitalia: Muscles

* Pelvic floor muscles
o Ischiocavernosus: acts to drive blood into the body of the clitoris
o bulbocavernosus: helps to maintain the structure of the pelvic tissue and serves as a vaginal sphincter

Female Internal Genitalia: Nerves
* Sexual arousal: stimulation to tactile and temperature receptors on the genitalia, breasts, etc.
* Orgasm: genital reflex governed by the spinal cord

Male External Genitalia

penis: male copulatory organ
frenulum: underside of the penis, between shaft and glans
glans: enlarged conic structure at the tip of the penis
corona: raised rim or ridge of tissue that separates the glans from the shaft
prepuce (forskin): loose-fitting retractable casing of skin that forms over the glans
smegma: accumulation of secretions on the penile glans from glands of foreskin
circumcision: surgical procedure involving removal of the prepuce
scrotum: skin-covered pouch containing the testes

corpora cavernosa: two large and uppermost cylindrical masses of penile tissue
corpus spongiosum: lower, smaller cyhlindrical mass of tissue in the penis, contains the urethra
crura: tapering part of the corpora cavernosa - forms the connection to the pubic bone
Testes: oval, glandular organs contained in the scrotum - produce sperm, secrete male hormones
spermatic cord: suspends the testes - contains arteries, nerves, veins, vas deferens
seminiferous tubules: tightly packed, convoluted structures in testicles, produce sperm
interstitial cells (Leydig’s cells): located between seminiferous tubules, produce androgens
epididymis: tightly coiled tube lying along the top of each testis - stores spermatozoa
vas deferens: structure that transports spermatozoa from testes to urethra
ejaculatory ducts: short tubes that pass through prostate to urethra - passageway for semen and fluid from seminal vesicles
urethra: tube for transporting urine and semen
seminal vesicles: secretory glands
prostate gland: secretes thin, milky, slightly alkaline fluid, rich in nutrients - into the seminal fluid - these secretions protect spermatozoa from acidic environment (male urethra, vagina)

cowper’s gland: contribute alkaline fluid to semen
Cross-section of the Penis
corpora cavernosa (upper left)
corpus spongiosum (lower right)
sperm: male reproductive cell

spermatogenesis: process of sperm production
spermatozoon: single sperm
spermatozoa: sperm, plural
acrosomal cap: covering of the head of the spermatozoon - contains enzymes that penetrate the outer cover of the ovum

semen: contains:

spermatozoa: sperm, plural
seminal fluid: contains secretions from seminal vesicles, prostate gland, Cowper’s gland, and epididymis

Arteries & Veins
Male Internal Genitalia: Muscles
Male Internal Genitalia: Nerves
Sexual Response Cycle

* Masters and Johnson Four-Stage Model
o excitement
o plateau
o orgasm
o refractory period

Sexual Response Cycle: Excitement

* For both males and females excitement leads to an increase in pulse, heart rate, blood pressure and muscle tension. Similarly both sexes experience increase blood flow to the genitals and nipples.
* In females, the vagina becomes naturally lubricated, lengthens and widens, whilst the labia swell.
* In males, erection of the penis is the most obvious sign of excitment.

Sexual Response Cycle: Plateau

* Further increases in circulation and heart rate occur in both sexes, sexual pleasure increases with increased stimulation, muscle tension increases further.
* At this stage females show a number of effects. The areolae and labia further increase in size, the clitoris withdraws slightly and the Bartholin's glands produce further lubrication.
* Males may start to secrete seminal fluid and the testes rise closer to the body.
* Orgasm is the conclusion of the plateau phase in a release of sexual tension. Both males and females experience quick cycles of muscle contraction of the anus and lower pelvic muscles, with women also experiencing uterine and vaginal contractions.
* Males ejaculate approximately 5-10ml of semen.

Sexual Response Cycle: Resolution

* The resolution stage occurs after orgasm and allows the muscles to relax, blood pressure to drop and the body to slow down from its excited state.
* Generally males experience a refractory period, meaning orgasm cannot be achieved again until time has passed. The penis meanwhile returns to a flaccid state. Females may not experience this refractory period and further stimulation may cause a return to the plateau stage. Otherwise, significant changes may also occur, such as the opening of the cervix and the reduction of blood flow to the genitals and nipples.

Sexual Response Cycle

* Kaplan three-stage model (1974)
o sexual desire
o sexual excitement
o orgasm

Sexual Desire

* Sexual appetite or drive
o sexual fantasies
o masturbation
o seek out, or be receptive to (Basson) sexual activity


Sexual Anatomy & Physiology.ppt

Read more...

The Appendicular Skeleton



The Appendicular Skeleton

* Limb bones and their girdles are appended, or attached to the axial skeleton
* The pectoral girdle attaches the upper limbs to the trunk
* The pelvic girdle secures the lower limbs
* The upper and lower limbs differ in their functions but share the same structural plan

The Pectoral Girdle

* Consists of the clavicle and the scapula
- do not completely encircle the body
* Medial end of each clavicle articulates with the manubrium and first rib
* Laterally, the ends of the clavicles join the scapulae
- scapulae do not join each other

Pectoral Girdle Functions

* Provides attachment for many muscles that move the upper limb
* The girdle is light allows upper limbs to be mobile
* Only the clavicle articulates with the axial skeleton
* Glenoid cavity - socket of the shoulder joint is shallow
- good for flexibility but bad for stability

Clavicles (‘Little Keys’)

* Aka collarbones are slender and S-shaped
* Extend horizontally across the superior thorax
* The flattened acromial end articulates with the scapula laterally
* The cone-shaped sternal end attaches to the manubrium medially


Clavicle Functions

* Provide attachment for muscles
* Act as braces - holds the scapulae and arms out laterally from the thorax
- a fractured clavicle will cause the entire shoulder region to collapse
* Transmits compression forces from the upper limbs to the axial skeleton
- allows you to push a heavy object

Scapulae

* Are thin, triangular flat bones located on the dorsal surface of the rib cage
- between rib 2 superiorly and rib 7 inferiorly
* 3 borders: Superior – shortest and sharpest;
Medial (vertebral) – parallels the vertebral column;
Lateral (axillary) – abuts the axilla and ends superiorly in the glenoid cavity (shallow fossa)
* 3 angles: Lateral – by the glenoid cavity;
Superior – the superior and medial borders meet;
Inferior – junction of the medial and lateral borders
* Biceps muscle
* Articulates with the humerus
* Suprascapular nerve
* Subscapularis muscle

Muscles:

* Infraspinatus
* Supraspinatus

The Upper Limb

* 30 bones – arm, forearm, and hand
* Humerus – only bone of the arm
- longest and strongest bone of the upper limb
- articulates with the scapula at the shoulder
- articulates with the radius and ulna at the elbow
- provides sites for muscle attachment
- provides articulation sites for other bones

* Rotator cuff muscles
* Guides a tendon of the biceps
* Deltoid muscle
* Radial nerve
* Epicondyles muscle sites
* ‘Pulley’ articulates with ulna
* ‘Small head’ articulates with radius

Antebrachium or Forearm

* 2 parallel long bones, the radius and the ulna
- articulate with the humerus proximally and bones of the wrist distally
- articulate with each other proximally and distally at the radioulnar joints
* Interosseous membrane interconnects the radius and ulna
* In anatomical position the radius is lateral
- when the palm faces posteriorly, the 2 bones form an X distal end of the radius crosses over the ulna

Details of Arm and Forearm
a) Anterior view
Ulna (‘elbow’)

* Main bone forming the elbow joint with the humerus
- slightly longer than the radius, looks like a monkey wrench
* 2 projections at the proximal end - olecranon process and coronoid process
- separated by the trochlear notch (a deep concavity)
* Hinge joint allows forearm to bend upon the arm (flex), then straighten again (extend)
* Distally ulna shaft ends in a knoblike head that articulates with the radius
- head is separated from the carpals by fibrocartilage disc that plays little or no role in hand movement

Ulna - Proximal Part

* Extended – olecranon process locks into the olecranon fossa of the humerus
Flexed – coronoid process fits into the coronoid fossa of the humerus

Radius and Ulna
Distal Ends of the Radius and Ulna
Hand
Carpus
Bones of the Hand
Metacarpus
Phalanges
Pelvic Girdle
Bony Pelvis
Coxal Bones
Ilium
Ishium
Pubis or Pubic Bone
Lateral and Medial Views of the Os Coxae
True and False Pelves
The Pelvis
Pelvic Structures and Childbearing
The Lower Limb
Thigh
Patella
Leg
Tibia and Fibula
The Foot
Tarsus
Metatarsus
Phalanges of the Toes
Arches of the Foot
Disorders of the Appendicular Skeleton
Appendicular Skeleton Throughout Life
Changes in Body Proportions
Adult Skeleton

The Appendicular Skeleton.ppt

Read more...

29 April 2009

Upper Cervical Spine Fractures



Upper Cervical Spine Fractures
Presentation lecture by:Daniel Gelb, MD

Upper Cervical Spine Fractures

* Epidemiology
* Anatomy
* Radiology
* Common Injuries
* Management Issues

Upper Cervical Spine Fractures
* Epidemiology
o Cause
+ MVC 42%
+ Fall 20%
+ GSW 16%
o Gender
+ Male 81%
+ Female 19%

Etiology of Spinal Cord Injury by Age
Upper Cervical Spine Fractures
Upper Cervical Anatomy
C1 - Atlas
Anatomy – The Atlas
C2 Anatomy
Anatomy – The Axis
Anatomy – The Ligaments
AtlantoAxial Anatomy
Tectorial Membrane
AtlantoAxial Anatomy
occiput
Tranverse Ligament
C1-C2 joint
Alar Ligament
AtlantoAxial Anatomy
Transverse
Ligament
Facet for Occipital Condyle


AtlantoAxial Anatomy
Vertebral
Artery
Radiographic Evaluation
Plain Radiographic Evaluation
Lateral View
Open Mouth AP
Radiographic Diagnosis – Screening Lines
Powers’s Ratio
Harris’s lines
Radiographic Lines
Powers’ Ratio
Radiographic Diagnosis
CT Scan
MRI
Upper Cervical Spine Fractures
Occipital Condyle Fracture
OccipitoAtlantal Dissociation (OAD)
Commonly Fatal
OccipitoAtlantal Dissociation (OAD)
Occipital Cervical Dissociation
Transverse ligament avulsion
Atlas Fractures - Treatment
Fusion options
Gallie
Brooks Jenkins
Transarticular Screws
C1 lateral mass/C2 pars-pedicle screws
Atlas Fractures - Treatment
Odontoid Fractures
Etiology Bimodal distribution
Odontoid Fractures
Treatment Options
odontoid fractures
Type 1
Type 3
Type 2
Type II Fracture Nonunion Risk Factors
Anterior Odontoid Screw Fixation
Indications
Contraindications
Posterior Odontoid Fixation
C1 lateral mass screws
Traumatic Spondylolisthesis Axis
Hangman’s Fracture
Hangman’s Fracture Treatment
Halo Immobilization
Elderly and Halo-vest Treatment

Upper Cervical Spine Fractures.ppt

Read more...

The Skeletal System



The Skeletal System
The Axial Skeleton presentation lecture from:NORTHLAND COMMUNITY & TECHNICAL COLLEGE

* Axial Skeleton
o 80 bones
o lie along longitudinal axis
o skull, hyoid, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, ear ossicles
* Appendicular Skeleton
o 126 bones
o upper & lower limbs and pelvic & pectoral girdles

Types of Bones

* 5 basic types of bones:
o long = compact
o short = spongy except surface
o flat = plates of compact enclosing spongy
o irregular = variable
o sesamoid = develop in tendons or ligaments (patella)
* Sutural bones = in joint between skull bones

Bone Surface Markings

* Surface features-- rough area, groove, openings, process
* Specific functions
o passageway for blood vessels and nerves
o joint formation
o muscle attachment & contraction
* Foramen = opening
* Fossa = shallow depression
* Sulcus = groove
* Meatus = tubelike passageway or canal
* Condyle = large, round protuberance
* Facet = smooth flat articular surface
* Trochanter = very large projection
* Tuberosity = large, rounded, roughened projection
* Learning the terms found in this Table will simplify your study of the skeleton.

The Skull

* 8 Cranial bones
o protect brain & house ear ossicles
o muscle attachment for jaw, neck & facial muscles
* 14 Facial bones
o protect delicate sense organs -- smell, taste, vision
o support entrances to digestive and respiratory systems

The 8 Cranial Bones


Frontal Bone
Parietal & Temporal Bones
Temporal and Occipital bones
Sphenoid bone
Sphenoid in Anterior View
Sphenoid from Superior View
Ethmoid Bone
Facial Bones
Maxillary bones
Zygomatic Bones
Lacrimal and Inferior Nasal Conchae
Inferior Nasal Conchae
Palatine & Vomer
Mandible
Sutures
Paranasal Sinuses
Fontanels of the Skull at Birth.
Bones of the Orbit
Nasal Septum
Hyoid Bone
Vertebral Column
Intervertebral Discs
Normal Curves of the Vertebral Column
Typical Vertebrae
Intervertebral Foramen & Spinal Canal
Typical Cervical Vertebrae (C3-C7)
Atlas & Axis (C1-C2)
Thoracic Vertebrae (T1-T12)
Lumbar Vertebrae
Sacrum
Coccyx
Thorax
Sternum
Ribs
Fracture at site of greatest curvature.
Rib Articulation
Herniated (Slipped) Disc
Clinical Problems

The Skeletal System.ppt

Read more...
All links posted here are collected from various websites. No video or powerpoint files are uploaded on this blog. If you are the original author and do not wish to display your content on this blog please Email me anandkumarreddy at gmail dot com I will remove it. The contents of this blog are meant for educational purpose and not for commercial use. If you use any content give due credit to the original author.

This site uses cookies from Google to deliver its services, to personalise ads and to analyse traffic. Information about your use of this site is shared with Google. By using this site, you agree to its use of cookies.

  © Blogger templates Newspaper III by Ourblogtemplates.com 2008

Back to TOP