The Cardiovascular Examination

Valvular Heart Disease and the Cardiac Exam
By:Charlotte Bai, M.D.
Internal Medicine Board Review
May 28, 2009

Overview
* Clinical syndromes
* Overview of cardiac murmurs and maneuvers
* Left sided valvular lesions
o Aortic stenosis and sclerosis
o Mitral stenosis
+ Rheumatic fever prophylaxis
o Acute and chronic aortic regurgitation
o Acute and chronic mitral regurgitation
* Right sided valvular lesions
o Tricuspid valve disease
* Prosthetic valves
* Endocarditis prophylaxis
* Questions

General Appearance
* Marfan Syndrome
o Tall, long extremities
o Associated with: aortic root dilitation, MV prolapse
* Acromegaly
o Large stature, coarse facial features, “spade” hands
o Associated with: Cardiac hypertrophy
* Turner Syndrome
o Web neck, hypertelorism, short stature
o Associated with: Aortic coarctation, pulmonary stenosis
* Pickwickian Syndrome
o Severe obesity, somnolence
o Associated with: Pulmonary hypertension
* Fredreich ataxia
o Lurching gait, hammertoe, pes cavus
o Associated with: hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
* Duchenne type muscular dystrophy
o Pseudohypertrophy of the calves
o Cardiomyopathy
* Ankylosing spondylitis
o Straight back syndrome, stiff (“poker”) spine
o Associated with: AI, CHB (rare)
* Lentigines (LEOPARD syndrome)
o Brown skin macules that do not increase with sunlight
o Associated with: HOCM, PS
“Spade” hands in acromegaly
* Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (Osler-Weber-Rendu)
o Small capillary hemangiomas on the face or mouth
o Associated with: Pulmonary arteriovenous fistula
* Lupus
o Butterfly rash on face, Raynaud phenomenon- hands, Livedo reticularis
o Associated with: Verrucous endocarditis, Myocarditis, Pericarditis
* Pheochromocytoma
o Pale diaphoretic skin, neurofibromatosis- café-au-lait spots
o Associated with: Catecholamine-induced secondary dilated CM
* Sarcoidosis
o Cutaneous nodules, erythema nodosum
o Associated with: Secondary cardiomyopathy, heart block
* Tuberous Sclerosis
o Angiofibromas (face; adenoma sebaceum)
o Associated with: Rhabdomyoma
* Myxedema
o Coarse, dry skin, thinning of lateral eyebrows, hoarseness of voice
o Associated with: Pericardial effusion, LV dysfunction

Grading the Intensity of Cardiac Murmurs
* Grade 1
o Murmur heard with stethoscope, but not at first
* Grade 2
o Faint murmur heard with stethoscope on chest wall
* Grade 3
o Murmur hears with stethoscope on chest wall, louder than grade 2 but without a thrill
* Grade 4
o Murmur associated with a thrill
* Grade 5
o Murmur heard with just the rim held against the chest
* Grade 6
o Murmur heard with the stethoscope held away and in from the chest wall

Cardiac Murmurs


* Most mid systolic murmurs of grade 2/6 intensity or less are benign
o Associated with physiologic increases in blood velocity:
+ Pregnancy
+ Elderly
* In contrast, the following murmurs are usually pathologic:
o Systolic murmurs grade 3/6 or greater in intensity
o Continuous murmurs
o Any diastolic murmur

Diagnostic Testing
* ECHOCARDIOGRAM
Aortic Stenosis
Progression of Aortic Sclerosis
* Hemodynamic progression usually slow
o Average rate of increase in aortic jet velocity of 0.3 m/s per year
o Increase in mean transaortic gradient of 7 mmHg
o Decrease in AVA of 0.1 cm2 per year
* Severe AS
o Aortic jet velocity > 4 m/s
o Mean transvalvular pressure gradient > 50 mmHg
o AVA < 1.0 cm2

Pathophysiology of Aortic Stenosis
* Obstruction of LV outflow increases intracavitary systolic pressures and leads to LV pressure overload
* Initial compensatory mechanism is myocardial hypertrophy with preservation of systolic function
* Diastolic function impaired as a consequence of increased wall thickness and abnormal myocardial relaxation
* Increased wall stress and afterload causes eventual decrease in ejection fraction

Pseudostenosis
* Occurs in patients with impaired systolic function and aortic stenosis
o Unable to generate transvalvular gradient
* Careful diagnostic testing with dobutamine infusion protocols can aid in differentiating between true AS and pseudostenosis
* If the calculated AVA increases with augmentation of cardiac output, then pseudostenosis present
* If AVA does not increase with dobutamine, then obstruction fixed and true AS present

Clinical Presentation of Aortic Stenosis
* Cardinal symptoms:
o Angina
+ Occurs in >50% of patients, not sensitive due to prevalence of CAD
o Syncope
o CHF
* Sudden cardiac death rare, <1% per year
* In earlier stages, AS presentation more subtle
o Dyspnea
o Decreased exercise tolerance
* Rarely, AS diagnosed in the setting of GI bleeding
o Heyde’s syndrome
+ Bleeding caused by AVM
+ Concurrent AS occurs at prevalence rate of 15-25%
+ Associated with an acquired von Willebrand syndrome due to disruption of vW multimers through a diseased AV

Management of Aortic Stenosis
* Prognosis in asymptomatic disease excellent
* Conservative approach with monitoring for symptoms recommended
* When severe stenosis present-
o 38% of asymptomatic patients develop symptoms within 2 years
o 79% are symptomatic within 3 years
* Once symptoms occur, AVR needed
* LV dysfunction and severe AS have increased perioperative mortality with AVR
o But outcomes still favorable with surgery
* Nitroprusside may transiently improve cardiac function as a bridge to valve replacement
o Does not supplant AVR in symptomatic patients

Aortic Valve Replacement
* Prophylatic AVR in asymptomatic patients not routinely performed due to surgical risks
o Thromboembolism, bleeding associated with anticoagulation, prosthetic valve dysfunction, and endocarditis
o Occurs at a rate of 2-3% annually
o Only should be considered:
+ If other cardiac surgery (such as CABG) planned
+ Severe LVH or systolic dysfunction
+ Women contemplating pregnancy
+ Patients remote from health care
* Surgical valve replacement with operative morbidity and mortality of 10%
* Percutaneous balloon aortic valvotomy rarely used

Mitral Stenosis
* Usually associated with history of rheumatic fever
* >40% of cases of RHD result in mitral stenosis
o Women affected more than men (2:1)
* Presentation 20-40 years after the initial episode of rheumatic fever
o If infected at a young age, latent period is a few years

Clinical Presentation of Mitral Stenosis
* Significant MS leads to ↑LA pressure and pulm HTN
* Symptoms include dyspnea with ↑ cardiac demand
o Exercise
o Pregnancy
* Survival excellent with asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic patients
o >80% survival at 10 years
* Survival in symptomatic patients much worse
o 10 year survival drops to 15% or lower (if pulm HTN present)
* Findings consistent with severe MS:
o Transvalvular diastolic pressure gradient >10 mmHg
o MVA <1.0 cm2
o Severe pulmonary hypertension (>60 mmHg)

Management of Mitral Stenosis
* Atrial fibrillation
Mitral Valve Repair
* Percutaneous valvotomy
Rheumatic Fever Prophylaxis
* Primary prophylaxis
* Secondary prophylaxis
Acute Aortic Regurgitation
Acute Mitral Regurgitation
Chronic Valvular Regurgitation
Chronic Aortic Regurgitation
Chronic Mitral Regurgitation
Treatment of Chronic Mitral Regurgitation
Timing of Intervention for Left-Sided Valvular Conditions
OTHERWISE
Repeat TTE yearly, repeat clinical evaluation biannually
OTHERWISE
Repeat TTE at least yearly, repeat clinical evaluation at least biannually depending on the severity of the LV dilitiation
OTHERWISE
Clinical evaluation at least annually, depending on the severity of the mitral stenosis
OTHERWISE
Depending on the severity of AS, at least annual clinical evaluation with TTE to monitor for symptom onset
Intervention:
AVR
Chronic Severe MR
Chronic Severe AR
Mitral Stenosis
Aortic Stenosis
Tricuspid Valve Disease
* Tricuspid stenosis is rare
o Associated with rheumatic heart disease
* TR usually occurs secondary to:
o Pulmonary hypertension
o RV chamber enlargement with annular dilatation
o Endocarditis (associated with IV drug use)
o Injury following pacer lead placement
* Other secondary causes: carcinoid, radiation therapy, anorectic drug use, and trauma
* Primary causes: Marfan’s syndrome and congenital disorders such as Ebstein’s anomaly and AV canal malformation
* Echo is diagnostic in most cases
Tricuspid Regurgitation
* Severe tricuspid regurgitation is difficult to treat and carries a poor overall clinical outcome
* Symptoms are manifestations of systemic venous congestion
* Surgical intervention usually considered if other cardiac surgery planned
* Surgical options include valvular annuloplasty or replacement

Prosthetic Valves- Mechanical
* Three types:
o Ball-cage valve
o Single tilting disk valve
o Bileaflet valve
* Durable but require life long anticoagulation
* For operative procedures, warfarin typically is discontinued for 48-72 hours and restarted postop as soon as possible, except for:
o Mechanical mitral prosthesis
o Atrial fibrillation
o Prior thromboembolic events
Ball-cage valve
Single tilting disk valve
Bileaflet valve
Prosthetic Valves- Biological
* Biological Valves
o Composed of autologous or xenograft biological material mounted on stents and a sewing ring
o Warfarin therapy not required due to lower thromboembolic potential
o Valve durability less when compared to mechanical valves
o Newer stentless valves with increased longevity

Anticoagulation Guidelines for Mechanical Valves
Prosthetic Valve Complications
* Common complications include:
o Structural valve deterioration
o Valve thrombosis
o Embolism
o Bleeding
o Endocarditis
* Endocarditis prophylaxis required for patients with all types of prosthetic valves
* Suspect valve dehiscence or dysfunction in:
o Acute CHF in the immediate postop period
o New cardiac symptoms
o Embolic phenomena
o Hemolytic anemia
o New murmurs
* TEE is the diagnostic procedure of choice
* Postop TTE should be done 2-3 months after surgery

Valve Thrombosis
* Incidence with mechanical prosthesis of 2-4 % per year
* Suspect in patients with new murmur, change in cardiopulmonary symptoms, or an embolic event
* Diagnosis based on clinical presentation, TTE/TEE, and fluroscopy
* In small thrombus, treatment with heparin may be adequate
* Optimal treatment for left sided thrombosis is emergency surgery
* Consider thrombolytic therapy for right sided thrombosis or if surgery cannot be performed with left sided disease
Endocarditis Prophylaxis

The Cardiovascular Examination.ppt